Letter To Board :: essays research papers

I would like to commend the apparent effort of the Pulaski County Board of Education in their developing the new Drug/Alcohol Screening Program now in effect in both local high schools. I am grateful to see that some advance has been made to valorize the education process in our community. However, I am discouraged to see that the main focus of this program is centered around some of the most valued students in our schools. It is to my knowledge that this program is designed to screen students involved in extracurricular activities, including sports, and student drivers. Although I do believe that there is some sort of drug use within these groups, I do not feel that this is the epicenter of the school system’s problems. Most drug use and/or drug trafficking, I have heard of and/or witnessed has not come from any of the groups listed in your policy. I believe it makes sense that some athletes use performance enhancing drugs and/or alcohol, as do some student drivers and club participants, but I do not feel that this is the area of greatest concern to you. As I am aware of, drugs and alcohol cause a condition called demotivational syndrome, which is evident in frequent drug users. This syndrome causes a lack of motivation, followed by a decline in academic performance, followed by an ultimate decline in personal well being. Student athletes for example, are expected to maintain a rigorous practice schedule, as well as a certain grade point average, which is inconsistent with the symptoms and effects of demotivational syndrome. I believe that the greatest amount of victims of drugs and demotivational syndrome are not located in athletic or school programs, but inside the school itself. No drug user I k now of and may have been familiar with is involved with sports or extracurricular activities, nor would they choose to be. It is to my knowledge that no less than 10% of student participants in these activities will be randomly screened at any time. But, if the main drug use in schools isn’t in the activities department, but in the school itself, why couldn’t 10% of the total student body be screened? It appears to not only me but other members of the student body, that the school board tests members of athletic departments and certain extracurricular activities because they are concerned about the public image of our school system.

The Actions of Cocaine in the Brain Essay -- Drugs Addiction Addicted

The Actions of Cocaine in the Brain Cocaine’s mode of action has been shown to involve the dopamine receptors. This paper will discuss how cocaine affects dopamine receptors, the mode of addiction, how cocaine affects the frontal brain metabolic activities, as well as the role of excitatory amino acids in cocaine’s mechanism. I will also discuss how cocaine affects another system through its mechanism on the brain—the renin angiotensin system. Cocaine influences dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin neurotransmission by inhibiting their reuptake. Pimozide, alpha-flupenthixol, perphenazine and chlorpromazine, all dopamine antagonists, were used to pre-treat rats in an attempt to demonstrate the reinforcing effects of dopamine. Because rats demonstrated a reduced rate of self-administration during extinction as well as after pre-treatment with antagonists, it is conceivable that dopamine receptors are involved in the reinforcing effects of cocaine (Hubner & Moreton, 1991). Two dopamine receptors, B1 and B2, are believed to be involved in these rewarding effects of cocaine. Rats were trained to self-administer cocaine intravenously on a fixed-ratio (FR) 5 schedule of reinforcement. When these rats were pretreated with SCH23390, a D1 antagonist, and spiperone, a D2 antagonist, their response rates varied. At doses up to l0ug/kg, the rats exhibited an increased response rate; whereas at doses higher than this, the rats showed a decrease in their response rate. A similar decrease in response rate was produced when central dopamine containing neurons were destroyed with the neurotoxin, 6-hydroxy-dopamine (Hubner &Moreton, 1991). The mode of action of the D1 receptor subtype is on adenylate cyclase. Upon activation, it s... ... 1. Dackis, C. A., and Gold, M. S. Neurotransmitter and neuroendocrine abnormalities associated with cocaine use. Psychiatric Medicine, 1987, 3: 469-477. 2. Hubner, C. and Moreton, J. Effects of selective D1 and D2 dopamine antagonists on cocaine self-administration in the rat. Psychopharmacology, 1991, 105: 151-156. 3. Karler, R. et. al. Excitatory amino acids and the actions of cocaine. Brain Research, 1992, 143-146. 4. Nestler E. Molecular Mechanisms of Drug Addiction. The Journal of Neuroscience, July 1992, 12(7): 2439-2450. 5. Rodriguez-Sanchez, M. et. al. Effect of Prenatal and Postnatal Cocaine Exposure on Somatostatin Content and Binding in Frontoparietal Cortex and Hippocampus of Developing Rat Pups. Peptides, 1991, l2: 951-956. 6.Volkow, N. et al. Long-Term Frontal Brain Metabolic Changes in Cocaine Abusers. Synapse,1997, 11:184-190 The Actions of Cocaine in the Brain Essay -- Drugs Addiction Addicted The Actions of Cocaine in the Brain Cocaine’s mode of action has been shown to involve the dopamine receptors. This paper will discuss how cocaine affects dopamine receptors, the mode of addiction, how cocaine affects the frontal brain metabolic activities, as well as the role of excitatory amino acids in cocaine’s mechanism. I will also discuss how cocaine affects another system through its mechanism on the brain—the renin angiotensin system. Cocaine influences dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin neurotransmission by inhibiting their reuptake. Pimozide, alpha-flupenthixol, perphenazine and chlorpromazine, all dopamine antagonists, were used to pre-treat rats in an attempt to demonstrate the reinforcing effects of dopamine. Because rats demonstrated a reduced rate of self-administration during extinction as well as after pre-treatment with antagonists, it is conceivable that dopamine receptors are involved in the reinforcing effects of cocaine (Hubner & Moreton, 1991). Two dopamine receptors, B1 and B2, are believed to be involved in these rewarding effects of cocaine. Rats were trained to self-administer cocaine intravenously on a fixed-ratio (FR) 5 schedule of reinforcement. When these rats were pretreated with SCH23390, a D1 antagonist, and spiperone, a D2 antagonist, their response rates varied. At doses up to l0ug/kg, the rats exhibited an increased response rate; whereas at doses higher than this, the rats showed a decrease in their response rate. A similar decrease in response rate was produced when central dopamine containing neurons were destroyed with the neurotoxin, 6-hydroxy-dopamine (Hubner &Moreton, 1991). The mode of action of the D1 receptor subtype is on adenylate cyclase. Upon activation, it s... ... 1. Dackis, C. A., and Gold, M. S. Neurotransmitter and neuroendocrine abnormalities associated with cocaine use. Psychiatric Medicine, 1987, 3: 469-477. 2. Hubner, C. and Moreton, J. Effects of selective D1 and D2 dopamine antagonists on cocaine self-administration in the rat. Psychopharmacology, 1991, 105: 151-156. 3. Karler, R. et. al. Excitatory amino acids and the actions of cocaine. Brain Research, 1992, 143-146. 4. Nestler E. Molecular Mechanisms of Drug Addiction. The Journal of Neuroscience, July 1992, 12(7): 2439-2450. 5. Rodriguez-Sanchez, M. et. al. Effect of Prenatal and Postnatal Cocaine Exposure on Somatostatin Content and Binding in Frontoparietal Cortex and Hippocampus of Developing Rat Pups. Peptides, 1991, l2: 951-956. 6.Volkow, N. et al. Long-Term Frontal Brain Metabolic Changes in Cocaine Abusers. Synapse,1997, 11:184-190

Essays --

Nazia Riaz Mr. Ian Wendt Muslim World December 13, 2013 Final Paper Beginning more than 1400 years ago, Islam has spread from the small trading town of Makkah on the Arabian Peninsula and became a world religion practiced on every continent. Like other world religions. Islam has been spreading ever since its origin. Both through migration of Muslims to new places and by individuals who have accepted Islam as their religion having chosen to convert from other religions. During the first century after Muhammad began preaching, there was rapid expansion of the territory under Muslim rule. The Muslims took over as a result of military campaigns. This territory did not instantly become Islamic, meaning that most people rapidly became Muslims. Rather the spread of Islam among the population took centuries even in the regions conquered in the seventh century. In this era Islamic faith and civilization encompassed extensive new areas of Eurasia and Africa. The continuing spread of Islam was closely connected to the migrations of conquerors and herding folk and to the growth of Muslim commercial enterprise all across the hemisphere. By about 1400 CE Muslim societies spanned the central two thirds of Afro-Eurasia. New Muslim states and towns were appearing in West Africa, the East African coast, Central Asia, India, and Southeast Asia. Consequently Muslim merchants, scholars, and a host of long-distance travelers were the principal mediators in the interreg ional exchange of goods, ideas, and technical innovations. Makkah was a huge trading center which really contributed to the spread of Islam. Merchants liked trading with Muslims. Religiously Muslims couldn’t add interest on anything which buyers really liked. Merchants dealing with Musl... ... to new areas. On the other hand, the Ottoman Empire in southeastern Europe or the Sultanate of Delhi and the later Mogul empire of India had success in spreading Islam. They did gain territory. Non Muslim populations seem to have viewed these powerful tax-gathering Muslim rulers negatively, and so they resisted conversion to Islam. Whoever did embrace Islam in such circumstances if not for material gain, they usually did so because of the efforts of merchants, teachers, and traveling Sufi preachers who were not part of the government. Through 600 to 1000 CE the Islamic world had expanded beyond its original territories through war, trade and cultural diffusion. As it interacted and expanded across Africa, Asia, the Mediterranean, and the Byzantine Empire the Islamic world spread the influence of its culture and religion, turning Islam into a great world religion.

Comparison between Thutmose III and Napoleon I

James Henry Breasted, an American archaeologist and historian, described Thutmose III as â€Å"the Napoleon of Egypt†. [1] Today this association of the Egyptian Pharaoh to Napoleon I, ‘Emperor of the French’, persists among modern archaeologists and historians. The purpose of this essay is to evaluate this comparison, and to conclude to what extent it is accurate. Thutmose III was an Egyptian Pharaoh and the sixth ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty, whose reign lasted for fifty-four years between 1479 to 1425 BCE. Following his father’s death in 1479 BCE, however, at ten years old Thutmose III was considered too young to succeed to the throne. As a result, his father’s widow, Queen Hatshepsut acted as his co-regent. For the next twenty-two years, though, she effectively ruled Egypt individually, even assuming the formal titulary of kingship. It was only after Queen Hatshepsut’s death in 1457 BCE that Thutmose III was able to rule as Pharaoh. By this time Thutmose III was already an experienced military commander. He had been trained as a soldier since he was a teenager and had apparently flourished in the role, appointed to lead Hatshepsut’s army in the six years previous to her death. During this time Thutmose III fought a major campaign in Nubia, and perhaps another, for which there is only tentative evidence, in addition to liberating Gaza from the rebels. As a result, he developed strong ties to the Egyptian army whilst acquiring experience in military organisation, strategy, tactics and logistics, as well as generalship. These qualities were demonstrated in Thutmose III’s first major campaign as pharaoh, in which the Canaanites, led by Durusha, the king of Kadesh, had decided to revolt in an attempt to free themselves of Egyptian influence after the death of Queen Hatshepsut. The battle commenced near Megiddo, which is now in Israel, as Thutmose III led an army of about ten-thousand men on a rapid march. Executing tactics and strategy which, while dangerous, were superior, he forced the Canaanites to scatter and flee into to the city. The Egyptians then besieged the city, which fell after another seven months. This absolute victory at the Battle of Megiddo is also the first known battle with precisely detailed events, as a part of the Annals, a listing of the seventeen campaigns led by Thutmose III as recorded on the walls of the temple to Amun at Karnak. If we examine and analyse the full text, two-hundred and twenty-three lines long (making it the longest, and possibly the most important, archaeological source in Egyptian history [2]) with an allowance for egotism it is largely reliable, and therefore useful. It illustrates that this first major campaign only marked the beginning of a long period of Egyptian expansion under a determined and relentless Thutmose III, who was obviously a successful military general. In subsequent campaigns he advanced north, steadily up the coast of Lebanon, capturing secure harbours, as well as safe transport and supply routes for Egypt’s army through the sea. By his sixth campaign, Thutmose III had also captured most of the inland cities, including Kadesh. 3] It was not until his eighth campaign, however, that Thutmose III asserted true dominance in the region, as he crossed the Euphrates River and defeated the Mitanni forces in Naharin, who posed a serious threat. Thutmose III’s subsequent campaigns were merely showings of force to ensure the continued loyalty and payment of tribute of almost three-hundred and fifty cities. With his gradual advance along a strategically well-planned route, and his careful, methodical preparation over a numbe r of years, Thutmose III had conquered much of the Near East, from the Euphrates River to Nubia. As a result, he had also created the New Kingdom Egyptian Empire, and established himself as the nation’s greatest warrior Pharaoh. The empire itself, also perhaps the first great empire in the ancient world, [4] then, consisted of cities and states held in positions of tributary allegiance, such as Nubia, but it also included those within its wider influence. This is demonstrated by the tremendous wealth that flowed into Egypt, not only from defeated enemies but also from those who feared Thutmose III’s power even though they had not come into conflict with it, including the Hittites, Cypriots and Babylonians, and even the Minoans of Crete. This ill-defined and loosely knit empire survived intact through the reigns of the next three Eighteenth Dynasty Pharaohs, its existence owed exclusively to Thutmose III. [5] It is due to his remarkable military activity record, filled with more battles over a longer period and more victories than any other general in the ancient world, [6] in addition to his short stature, that archaeologists refer to Thutmose III as â€Å"the Napoleon of Egypt†. However, although Grafton Smith, an Australian anatomist, had stated the height of Thutmose III’s mummy to be 1. 65 metres in his examination of the mummy following its iscovery in 1881, [7] he did not account for its missing feet when taking the measurements. A more recent examination revealed Thutmose III’s height to be 1. 71 metres, which was taller than the average Egyptian of his day and all of the pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty except Amenhotep I. [8] Interestingly, such confusion also exists in Napoleon Bonap arte’s depiction as someone much smaller than average height, due to a miscalculation. According to his French doctor, Francesco Antommarchi, who performed the autopsy, Napoleon Bonaparte was 5 feet and 2 inches tall. However, the French pouce, whilst the equivalent to the British inch, are equal to 2. 71 and 2. 54 cm respectively, which means he was, in fact, 5 feet and 6 inches tall. This miscalculation has seen historians now describe Napoleon Bonaparte as someone of average height of the period, and as a result, he cannot compare to Thutmose III, who is now recognised as someone taller than the average height of his time, in addition to a genius in the operational art of war, and a great military commander. 9] Napoleon I was a military and political leader of France and later Emperor of the French, between 1804 and 1814 CE, and again during the Hundred Days period in 1815 CE. During the Napoleonic Wars, which involved every major European power, he led the French Empire to a streak of victories. As a result, its power rose quickly, and Napoleon I conquered most of Europe. This sphere of influence was maintained through the formation of extensive alliances and the appointment of friends and fam ily members to rule other European countries as French client states. At its most extensive, the French Empire had forty-four million inhabitants, and its subject states thirty-eight million, [10] and not since Charlemagne had a politically united Europe seemed as close as it did under Napoleon I. [11] However, it would prove to be Napoleon I’s attempt to unite the continent by armed might that would lead to his fall. Unlike Thutmose III, who appears to have been a compassionate man despite his military ferocity, with no records of massacres or atrocities among his seventeen listed campaigns in the Annals, Napoleon I is considered by many historians, including Pieter Geyl and David G. Chandler, to be a tyrant. His authorisation of the use of sulphur gas against the rebel slaves in the Haitian Revolution, as well as his decision to reinstate slavery in France’s overseas territories eight years after its abolition in 1794 CE, during the French Revolution, always controversial to his reputation, [12] certainly support the suggestion that when faced with the prospect of war, and therefore, the death of thousands, Napoleon I was not significantly troubled by the idea. (In fact, historians have estimated the death toll from the Napoleonic Wars as a figure between three and seven million. This view was certainly shared between his opponents, who continually formed Coalitions in opposition to the French Empire. The administrative and legal reforms of the Revolution which Napoleon I had carried to the rest of Europe could not be separated from the ideas of Nationalism and Liberalism that had given those reforms substance, [13] and as a result, nations within the Fre nch Empire adopted these ideas, as well as many of the military and administrative reforms that had made France so powerful. This eventually led to the formation of the Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon I after his temporary revival of the French Empire in 1815 CE, which had fallen with his abdication a year earlier. Consequently France, in which the Bourbon monarchy was restored, no longer held the role of the dominant power in Europe, as it had since the times of Louis XIV. In addition, unlike Napoleon I, Thutmose III did not inherit a strong nation or experienced army, but a defeated and insular society. 14] Whilst the ‘Emperor of the French’ received massed forces, weaponry and mobility (which would later be defined as the characteristics of Napoleonic warfare) due to the innovations of the French Revolution, including mass conscription, the Egyptian Pharaoh was forced to completely reform his army. He would establish a conscript base, create a professional officer corps and equip it with modern weapons, as well as integrate chariots into new tactual doctrines. Additionally, he would also create the first combat navy in the ancient world. Perhaps it is fitting, then, that the description of Thutmose III as â€Å"the Napoleon of Egypt† should be reconsidered. Whilst Napoleon I’s First French Empire would a last combined ten years and result in an immediate loss of status France, Thutmose III’s New Kingdom Egyptian Empire was a great nation of imperial dimensions that ruled the entire world that an Egyptian would have considered knowing for more than five hundred years. 15] In addition, Thutmose III managed to architect and establish such an Empire without inheriting the calibre of resources that Napoleon I had access to. Therefore, it is obvious that Thutmose III’s military achievements were, to use the words of English military historian B. H. Liddell Hart, â€Å"greater than Napoleon†. [16] Similarly, in the opinion of another military historian in the Canadian Richard A. Gabriel, Thutmose III was not â⠂¬Å"the Napoleon of Egypt† but â€Å"Egypt’s Alexander the Great†, [17] arguably the most successful military commander in history. Furthermore, whilst both Thutmose III and Napoleon I were believed to be men of short stature by James Henry Breasted, which inclined him to make the comparison as opposed to one with another esteemed military commander, historians have now recognised that these assumptions are incorrect. The Egyptian Pharaoh, after a more recent examination, is now recognised as someone taller than the average height of his time, while the ‘Emperor of the French’ is now described as someone of average height of the period, following the discovery of a miscalculation which had deprived him of four inches. In addition, it seems that to alike the two men in character, let alone build, would be incorrect, due to their apparent differences in temperament. As a result, whilst there is a persisting description of Thutmose III as â€Å"the Napoleon of Egypt† among archaeologists, when he is compared to the ‘Emperor of the French’ it is obvious that such an image should be abandoned. Although a determination to pursue to imperialist ambitions is synonymous, the extent to which each was successful in their attempt to establish and maintain their empires differ. Thutmose III’s remarkable record of military activity, in fact, overshadows that of Napoleon I, whose empire wound only last a combined ten years and result in an immediate loss of status France, as opposed to the New Kingdom Egyptian Empire, which would last five hundred years.

Manga vs American Comics

In the world today, due to the ease of distribution and commerce, we see much diversity of products all over the place. A high competitors in this are comics, the American comic battling the Japanese comic (manga). There is a big difference in art styles between Manga, which is more exaggerated and American comics, which tend to be more â€Å"realistic†. There are also quite a few serious differences between the two types of comics. Some of the differences, just to mention a few of them are the cost, creation, diverse audience and genres, presentation and even size. Many continue reading the American comics because it is traditional, eye catching, and they like heroes. However more are turning to manga instead for it appeals to their everyday lifestyles, it’s simple, and there is a lot more content. Manga will be more prominent than American comics without a doubt. The creation of Manga and its layout is quite different than American Comics. Manga is printed in black and white format while American comics are for the most part in full color. Also, when you look at a graphic novel or Manga you will notice there is a great difference in the size. Manga is frequently smaller than traditional American comic books, usually digest-size and roughly half or less the size of American comics. Where the American comics are generally thin like a small magazine, Manga is thick and with many more pages. This not only makes it more comfortable for the reader it also provides more content keeping their attention longer. In page count, Manga is quite similar to graphic novels, which are often just collections of the ongoing American comics. But unlike American graphic novels, which are usually just a collection of monthly comics in a single unified story or story arc, Manga books are often apart of an even bigger story and a complete Manga storyline can run thousands of pages. Another difference between traditional American comics is that mainstream American comics are often created in a sort of assembly-line fashion. They have a writer, a penciler (initial sketch), inker (uses a pen to ink over the sketch), letterer (adds dialog) and a colorist. Most Manga books are done by a single creator, who combines all those chores except coloring. Also Manga story lines usually move at a much quicker pace. Due to the high page count, one reads a Manga book at an accelerated pace. Manga books almost always have fewer panels and less dialogue (rambling) per page than American comic books. Check the average Japanese comic book, and you’ll find lots of wordless art. Some of this may be establishing shots, setting a scene or a mood. Some of it may be pure visual action or suspense, told solely through motion, facial expressions, or body language. The price for Manga is also less than the average comic book and a bit less than a standard paperback novel, the small size of Manga and black-and-white printing rather than full color keeps the cost down. The lack color is made up when you consider the story development that it'll have with the amount of pages it has. In Japan, Manga is not viewed as just for kids unlike the American stereotype. There pretty much is a Manga for everyone. With that being stated there are three main genres in Japanese Manga: Shonen Manga (boy's comics), Shojo Manga (girl's comics) and Hentai (adult comics). Shonen Manga is pretty much comics that are primarily action and/or adventure geared. Shojo Manga is for the opposite sex; they are often about relationships and/or love interests. Please note that even though a particular genre is geared towards a certain audience it's not limited to just that audience (unless otherwise stated). Hentai Manga are more focused on the sexual aspect of adulthood usually banned from those younger than the limit. While American comics tend to fall into a few specific genres (superhero, science fiction, etc. ), Japanese comics are designed for a much wider range of reading interests. There are Japanese comics for young boys and girls to adults of all tastes and interests. There are sports comics, soap-opera comics, ambitious business comics — just about any topic you can name. Many of these are much too specialized for the American market, but they are fascinating to know about. With this look at the competing markets, I believe that Manga will just take over due to its large variety. American comics having been based of history or such figures have a harder time keeping up. Manga aren’t as reliant on a base and a set of rules which allows them to adapt or simply tell whatever the story is. Until American comics can find that flexibility they simply won’t be able to keep up with Manga.

Is Development Determined in the Womb? Essay

Introduction Lifecycle or lifespan development is the field in psychology that studies how people change with time. These changes could be biological, including body changes and motor skills; cognitive, including thought and language; and psychosocial, including emotions, personality and relationships with other people. Life cycle development starts in the womb at conception and continues throughout the individual’s life. Other important stages of development are; birth, infancy, adolescence, adulthood, old age and finally death. Though some aspects of development may be strongly influenced by how the fetus develops in the womb, the genes one receives from his/her parents interact with the environmental factors after the individual is born such as the food one eats, parenting, experiences, friends, family relationships, culture and school. All this help us understand the influences that help contribute to growth and development. Our genes are the bio-chemical units of heredity that make ea ch of us a distinctive human being. The genes we share make us people rather than dogs or tulips. But might our individual genetic make-ups explain why one person is outgoing, another is shy, or why one person is slow-witted while another is smart? Some developmental psychologists focus on explaining how our genetic background can determine not only how we look, but also how we behave, how we relate to others i.e. matters of personality. These professionals explore ways to identify how much of our potential as human beings is provided or limited by heredity. In this article we’ll take a closer look at how biological influences (genes) help shape individual development. We’ll learn more about how genetic disorders can impact one’s psychology and development and also how our experiences interact with genetics. Lastly we’ll learn on ways to take care of a child while in the womb and after to ensure they reach their maximum genetic potential. How Biological Influences Determine Development. Development begins at that moment when chromosomes in the sperm and ovum join together in the fallopian tubes to form 23 pairs in an entirely new cell called a zygote. Chromosomes are composed of molecules of DNA containing the genes. Genes are pieces of genetic material that control or influence traits. It is these genes that will guide cell activity for the rest of the individual’s life. A gene controlling some specific characteristic always appear in the same place (the locus) on the same chromosome in every individual of the same species. For example, the locus of the gene that determines whether a person’s blood is type A, B or O is on chromosome 9. Genes also determine the nature and function of every cell in the body. For instance, they determine which cells will ultimately become part of the heart and which will become part of the muscles of the leg. It is the genes that establish how different parts of the body will function; how rapidly the heart will beat, or how much strength a muscle will have. The genetic instructions passed down from both parents’ influence how an individual develops and the traits they will have. Combinations of genes from the father in the sperm and from the mother in the ovum create a unique genetic blueprint the genotype- all of the genes that a person has inherited-that characterizes that specific individual. The actual expressions of those genes that can be identified by directly observing the individual is the phenotype. The phenotype can include physical traits, such as height and color of the eyes, as well as non-physical traits such as shyness, a high strung temperament or a thirst for adventure. Whether or not a gene is expressed depends on two different things: the interaction of the gene with other genes and the continual interaction between the genotype and the environment. The simplest genetic rule is the dominant-recessive pattern in which a single dominant gene strongly influences phenotype. If a child receives a single dominant gene, for a trait from one parent, the child’s phenotype will include the trait determined by that gene. In contrast, a child’s phenotype will include a recessive trait only if she inherits a recessive gene from both parents. Eye color is one example of dominant-recessive genes at work. The gene for brown eyes is dominant and the gene for blue eyes is recessive. If one parent hands down a dominant brown eye gene while the other parent hands down a recessive blue eye gene, the dominant gene will win out and the child will have brown eyes. A person’s sex is also determined in the womb. An individual inherits 23 pairs of chromosomes. Twenty- two of these pairs of chromosomes, called autosomes, contain most of the genetic information controlling highly individual characteristics like hair color, height, body shape, temperament, aspects of intelligence and also all those characteristics shared by all members of our species, such as pattern of physical development. The twenty-third pair, the sex chromosomes, determines the child’s sex. One of the two sex chromosomes, the X chromosome, is one of the largest chromosomes in the body and carries a large number of genes. The other, Y chromosome, is quite small and contains only a few genes. Zygotes containing two X chromosome i.e. XX develops into female and zygote containing one X and one Y chromosome i.e. XY develops into male. Genetic Disorders. Though development in the womb usually produces a normal infant, genetic instructions are not infallible and can go off track at times. Sometimes when a sperm or ovum is formed, the number of chromosomes may divide unevenly, causing the organism to have more or less than the normal 23 chromosomes. When one of these abnormal cells joins with a normal cell, the resulting zygote will have an uneven number of chromosomes. In every case, the result is some type of syndrome with a set of distinguishing characteristics. For example, Down Syndrome in this case, the child has three chromosomes at the site of the 21st chromosomes instead of the normal two. This can result to mental retardation and abnormal physical development. How Interaction Between The Genes And The Environment Determine Development. Although genes play an important role in human development, they alone do not determine who we are. It is important to note that the environment an individual is exposed to both in womb and throughout the rest of his or her life can also impact how the genes are expressed. For example, exposure to harmful drugs while in womb can have a dramatic impact on later child development. Exposure to teratogens, which are noxious substances or other factors that can disrupt prenatal development can prevent the individual from reaching his or her inherited potential. For example, prenatal exposure to X rays can disrupt the migration of brain cells, causing mental retardation (Schull, Norton, & Jensh, 1990). Environmental factors such as the food we eat, the air we breathe, the physical and social contexts we experience, our relationships and our continual ongoing interactions at work, at home and at play are necessary for a person to develop well. Heredity and environment work together to produce person’s intelligence, temperament, height, weight, ability to read and so on. Height is a good example of a genetic trait that can be influenced by environmental factors. While a child’s genetic code may provide instructions for tallness, the expression of this height might be suppressed if the child has poor nutrition or a chronic illness. Proper Care During And After Pregnancy From the above information we can see that most of an individual’s characteristics, from sex, eye color, height, intelligence are determined in the womb because of the genes, great care of the foetus is important to ensure the development is not impaired. Genetic codes are not irrevocable signals for this or that pattern of development or this or that disease. The eventual developmental outcome is affected by the specific experiences the individual may have from conception onwards. Maintaining good nutrition and obtaining pre-natal care is necessary. According to Institute of Medicine, 1990 development before and during pregnancy is important to defend against specific defects and diminish overall vulnerability. Mineral and Vitamins including iron, zinc, calcium and vitamin A have been proved to be essential for the normal development of the fetus. Early, competent, pre-conceptual and prenatal care is also vital as they not only help birth defects but also reduces the rate of low- birth weight. Avoiding teratogens is vital to avoiding defects on the unborn infant. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that parents read, sing, talk and play music for their baby inside the womb. It is believed that cognitive development starts inside the womb, and hearing music and parents’ voices helps develop a baby’s emotional state. In addition, many researchers believe that hearing a mother’s and father’s voices regularly before birth helps babies learn who their parents are so that those voices can better soothe them after they are born. The Mayo Clinic has also published several studies showing that babies, who are read, played music, sung or spoken to regularly have shown signs of being calmer babies, and may have a better emotional connection with their parents or caregivers. After birth environmental factors such as the food we eat, the air we breathe, the physical and social contexts we experience, our relationships and our continual ongoing interactions at work, at home and at play are necessary for a person to develop well. For example while considering the type of parenting, permissive parents set few rules and rarely punish misbehavior. Their children will be less likely to adopt positive standards of behavior. Children raised by authoritarian parents who resort to discipline, might develop low self-esteem and are more socially withdrawn (Kaufman & Cicchetti, 1989). They tend to be more aggressive and are more likely to become juvenile delinquents (Bower, 1990). According to Baumrind, 1993 the best approach to child rearing is authoritative parenting. These parents are warm and loving, yet insist their children behave appropriately. They encourage independence within well-defined limits, show willingness to explain the reasons for the rules, and permit children to verbalize their disagreement with them. Their children are more likely to become socially competent, independent and responsible. Conclusion While some aspects of development may be strongly influenced by biology, environmental influences may also play a role. For example, the timing of when the onset of puberty occurs is largely the results of heredity, but environmental factors such as nutrition can also have an effect. While the genetic instructions a child inherits from his parents may set out a road map for development, the environment can impact how these directions are expressed, shaped or event silenced. The complex interaction of nature and nurture does not just occur at certain moments or at certain periods of time; it is persistent and lifelong. Clearly, genetics have an enormous influence on how a child develops. However, it is important to remember that genetics are just one piece of the intricate puzzle that makes up a child’s life. Environmental variables, including parenting, culture, education and social relationships also play a vital role. Berger, K. S. (1998). The Developing Person Through the Life Span (4th Ed). New York. Worth Publishers. Berk, E. Laura. (2001). Development through the Life Span. U.S.A. Allyn and Bacon Publishers. Hellen, L. Bee and Boyd, L. Denise. (1989). Life Span Development (3rd Ed). Boston. Allyn and Bacon Publishers. Hellen, L. Bee and Sandra, K. Mitchelle. (1980). The Developing Person: A Life-Span Approach. New York. Harper and Row Publishers. Lester, M. Sdorow and Cheryl, A. Rickabaugh. (2002). Psychology 5th ed. New York. McGraw-Hill.

Road to Dreams

Life has always been about making choices. We are brought to a realization that the choices we make in life would either make or break us. The past year has been an adventure for me.I was able to experience new and exciting things that were beneficial in my growth and maturity as an individual. For the past few years, I became interested in rendering service to my community. Children became my weakness, and I paid close attention to children who did not have much in life.As a weakness, I deal with children who have special needs. I make sure that I give these children a memorable time, especially for those who are terminally ill. This is the same service that I offer the elderly, so that I may give them a comfortable life. These are some of the experiences that inspire me to become better with my craft and make a difference. The different experiences and the difference I could make with my passion for children would definitely help improve the quality of service that would be given t o Christ Hospital College Community.I started working and interacting with children a few years ago. Equipped with an open mind and eagerness to succeed, I embarked on my quest to fulfill these challenges. For each case that I encountered, I made sure that I was prepared to become the best individual that I can be. My exposure to the children made me realize that there was more to life than just heartaches.Our close encounter with each other made us appreciate the little things that life had to offer. In their own little way, these children showed me the importance of life, and how important it is to have a strong will in life. Such characteristics were necessary in order to become successful in life.Our Wednesdays were spent in the sensory room, where we would take the time and effort to sit on an exercise ball. This may sound easy for many, but for these kids who are feeling weak physically, this is much effort. A goal was set for each week, and together, we would try and reach th ose goals. We were fortunate enough to have them accomplished, making us a step closer to our goals. I noticed that these kids were willing to give their best in order to improve themselves and feel better.I was once given the opportunity to go on a trip to Give Kids the World Village in Disney World. The foundation granted the wishes of children who had life threatening diseases.I have achieved a strong work ethic while spending time with these children they helped me reach a personal experience that I will always keep with me. I was scared at first, for I could not imagine risking the children experience relapses. For every ride that we went to, I saw the genuine happiness from these kids that I have never seen before. I became more opened to the realities that life had to offer. Being involved in the medical field became more than just a dream – it was a passion that I wanted to continue as I grew older.Working with adults never became a hindrance from my end. In fact, I b ecame more determined than ever to indulge into the said field, where I believe I can accomplish my hopes and dreams. In addition to this, I had numerous experiences that would come as an advantage to my career. These could be employed as my backbone, especially when dealing with different kinds of people.My goals in life do not end after college. I would continue to promote good health and care for people around me, as I age and mature. In addition to this, I would keep myself updated with medical advancements, so that I may be able to apply these in my profession.Furthermore, I believe that I have what it takes to become successful in this field. Aside from my dedication and commitment to this field, I also have the heart those who are in need. I believe that this is my greatest strength in becoming an effective member of the health care team.   Life is indeed filled with different choices, and this was one I took to reach the road towards   my dreams